What is child marriage & where does it take place?
Child marriage, also known as early or forced marriage, is a harmful practice where a child, usually a girl, is married before she is 18. It often ends childhood, stops girls from going to school, and puts them at risk of abuse, pregnancy, and health problems. It happens because of poverty, crises, gender inequality, and traditions, and it is a serious global problem.
Understanding child marriage
For most people, the idea of marrying a child off is a difficult one to understand. But for millions of people around the world, it may feel like the best — or only — option. And in some cultures, it’s socially acceptable, and even desirable, for girls to be married before the age of 18.
In societies where gender inequality is widespread, daughters are seen as either economic burdens or assets. In households living in poverty, marriage can be viewed as a way of securing their daughter’s future. And in some cultures, parents are paid a dowry or bride price, giving them greater financial security.
During humanitarian crises, such as conflict or natural disasters, the pressure to marry daughters off can be greater. Before a crisis situation, child marriage may have been something the family would never have considered. But in these circumstances they may feel that marriage offers protection and stability for themselves and the girl. However, child marriage often exposes girls to high levels of sexual, physical, and emotional abuse.
In parts of South Asia, Africa, and the Middle East, girls may be married to control their sexuality or restore family honour.
How widespread is child marriage?
Despite being recognised as a human rights violation, child marriage is widespread in many parts of the world.
2019 data from UNICEF showed that there were 765 million child brides and grooms. Girls are disproportionately affected, making up 85% of child marriages.
What’s the difference between child marriage, early marriage, and forced marriage and unions?
Child marriage, early marriage and forced marriage are often used interchangeably. But there are some differences.
Child marriage is any marriage (a formal or informal union) where one or both individuals are under 18. There may or may not be consent, but regardless it is a human rights violation.
Early marriage is when someone marries before they are physically, emotionally, or mentally ready, even if they are over 18. It may be legal but is still harmful. Young women may have been pressured or coerced to marry before they are ready.
Forced marriage is when one or both people are married without agreeing. This can happen at any age and often involves pressure, threats, or violence.
Unions refers to informal marriages or free unions that are more common in Latin America and the Caribbean. They are to all intents and purposes the same as a formal marriage, but without the legal status and not formalised by the state or religious authorities.
Why does child marriage happen?
Child marriage happens around the world for several reasons which are complex and interlinked. It could be because of cultural beliefs, gender inequality, poverty, emergency situations or a lack of laws that protect against it.
Poverty
Poverty is one of the most significant drivers of child marriage. Poverty puts huge pressure on families. Families may marry off daughters to reduce household costs or because they receive money for the marriage.
In some cases, families may be offered a dowry (a sum of money) for their daughter’s marriage. This can be viewed as a necessary and vital source of income.
Humanitarian crises and conflict
In times of conflict and humanitarian crises, child marriages can increase. Child marriage may even return to a region where it had become less common as families feel it’s their only option for survival. Child marriage can also be used as a weapon of war when non-state armed groups force girls to marry soldiers, fighters or men from particular families.[1]
When a country is in crisis, services and systems that were in place to protect people break down. For example, crises that disrupt education increase girls' vulnerability to child marriage. In wars or disasters, schools and services may shut down. Families may feel that marrying their daughters is safer or more practical.
Gender inequality and cultural norms
Gender inequality and cultural norms play a part in child marriage by viewing girls as ‘less’ than boys, and as economic burdens or property. In some cultures, girls are seen as less valuable than boys. Marrying them off early may be seen as a way to control them or protect family honour. These norms also impact the rights and freedoms of LGBTQI+ young people, who may feel forced to get married due to stigma and discrimination within their families and communities as a result of their sexual orientation or gender identity.
Weak or inadequate legal protections
In many countries around the world child marriage is illegal. However, inadequate laws or policy — or failure to uphold and enforce these laws — means that child marriage still takes place.
In some countries, whilst the legal age to marry is 18, exceptions can be made when the parents or guardians give their consent.
A lack of records, such as birth certificates, may make it difficult to confirm the age of the individual or individuals getting married.
Even when laws exist, they are not always enforced and sometimes they conflict other laws. This enables child marriages and unions to occur.
The link between child marriage and education
There is a strong link between child marriage and education, and it is two-way. Girls are more likely to drop out of school if they marry early and a limited education carries a higher risk of child marriage.
What happens when girls marry too young?
According to UNICEF, girls who marry before the age of 18 are six times less likely to complete secondary school than those who marry later. This limits job chances and independence, trapping them in poverty.
They often become pregnant early, which can be dangerous. Pregnancy is a leading cause of death for girls aged 15–19. Their babies also face health risks.
How would universal secondary education help?
Education is one of the most powerful ways to prevent child marriage and promote gender equality. Keeping girls in school longer delays them getting married early. Research shows that for every year that a girl stays in secondary education, she is 6% less likely year-on-year to marry early. Educated girls know more about their rights and are more likely to say no to marriage. Educated parents are also less likely to marry off their daughters.
"I hate the traditional mindset of my community that supports child marriage because it limits our potential and denies us the chance to achieve our dreams,"
"Such practices prevent us from getting an education and living our lives to the full. I believe that every girl deserves the opportunity to decide her own future and pursue her goals without being bound by outdated customs." Lakshina, a 14-year old school girl from Nepal, explains.
The consequences of child marriage
The consequences of child marriage are wide-ranging and can have a devasting effect on girls for generations to come. Child marriage limits education, increases health risks from early pregnancy, and exposes girls to domestic and sexual violence. It reduces their job opportunities, reinforces gender inequality, and helps continue a cycle of poverty. Emotionally and socially, it stops girls from getting the support they need and impacts their mental health.
Health risks and pregnancy
When girls are married off at an early age and they often lack the ability to refuse sex or access contraception, they are at greater risk of early pregnancy. Their bodies may not be ready to grow a baby and go through childbirth. This makes complications more likely during the pregnancy and can even lead to a higher likelihood of death for the mother.
According to the World Health Organization (WHO), complications during pregnancy and childbirth are a leading cause of death for girls aged 15–19. Babies are also affected by health problems, with many being born before their due date or being born too small. Some babies are also born with serious health issues.
Married girls can often face discrimination when trying to access sexual and reproductive health services, including safe abortion. Unsafe abortion is a significant driver of maternal deaths in girls and young women.
Limited opportunities and economic impact
Many girls who are married young stop going to school either because they get pregnant or because they have to do household chores. This loss of education limits a girl’s future job opportunities and increases their economic dependency on their husband. From a societal perspective, keeping girls in school is not only the right thing to do but one that has huge social and economic benefits.
Poor mental health and emotional well-being
Child marriage has serious consequences for the mental health and emotional well-being of girls. It often leads to emotional and social isolation as they are separated from their families and friends and stop going to school. There is a lack of support, which deepens their isolation and affects their mental health.
They often have no say in who they can marry and when, which undermines their rights and creates a feeling of worthlessness. Many child brides experience domestic violence and early pregnancy, both lead to trauma and poor mental health. The forced responsibilities of keeping a household and caring for children can make these girls feel helpless, anxious and depressed.
Child marriage can cause sadness, anxiety, and trauma. Many girls feel powerless. These feelings can lead to longer term mental health issues.
Increased risk of violence and exploitation
Child brides are often forced into sex and may face violence at home. They may be forced to take part in sexual acts against their will or face physical violence and/rape if they try to resist. Often girls are married to older men, which reduces their power to resist or report abuse.
Where does child marriage happen?
Child marriage is a global issue but it’s most prevalent in Sub-Saharan Africa, where 38% of girls are married before they are 18. In South Asia, 30% of girls are child brides compared to 25% in parts of Latin America and the Caribbean. In the Middle East and North Africa, 17% of girls are married before the age of 18 and 11% in Eastern Europe and Central Asia, according to data from UNICEF.
Child marriage also happens in countries with more advanced economies, like the U.S.A where some state law allows it. It also happens in the U.K. where it is illegal but still takes place.
In February 2023, the legal age for marriage and civil partnerships in England and Wales was raised to 18. This meant 16- and 17-year-olds could no longer marry or enter a civil partnership, even if their parents or a court agreed. The change was made to protect children from forced marriage.
Is child marriage legal?
Child marriage is defined as a formal or informal union between two people where at least one person is aged under 18. Child marriage is considered by the United Nations, UNICEF, and global human rights bodies as a violation of human rights. However, it is legal in some places and banned in others.
Laws and loopholes that allow child marriage
In many countries around the world child marriage is illegal. However, laws and policies that are not fit for purpose as well as a failure to reinforce the laws that are in place, mean child marriage continues.
For example, some countries (or even states in the U.S.) have legal exceptions that allow child marriage, such as parental or guardian consent or a court or judge’s approval.
In some countries, although child marriage may be illegal, the change in the law has not led to social change, meaning it can still be acceptable in communities or in customary laws. This is particularly an issue when there is a failure to reinforce the law in all areas of the country.
How enforcement varies by country
In the U.S. there is no federal minimum age for marriage because marriage laws are state governed. Currently, there are 36 U.S. states that legally allow child marriage under certain conditions and 14 states where it is illegal.
In England and Wales, since 2023, the minimum legal age for marriage is 18, without any exceptions (for example, the consent of the parents). Arranging a marriage where one person is under 18 is punishable by up to 7 years in prison [2]. These laws do not apply in Scotland and Northern Ireland, where the minimum age for marriage will remain 16. In Northern Ireland parental consent is required for those under 18 but not in Scotland.
In India, the Prohibition of Child Marriage Act (2006) sets minimum ages at 18 for women and 21 for men with violations punishable by imprisonment or fines.
What can be done to end child marriage?
Child marriage differs depending on cultures, countries, circumstances or communities. There is no single solution to ending it. A tailored approach is needed.
Although each situation is unique, ending child marriage requires collective action. This includes girls, their families, boys and men, community and religious leaders, civil society organisations, and governments. Only by working together can we achieve change.
Key strategies to end child marriage include:
- Make and enforce strong laws to stop child, early, and forced marriages and unions.
- Work with communities about how to change attitudes and encourage positive alternatives.
- Help girls access education on sexual and reproductive health services, including access to contraception and safe abortion.
- Work with traditional and religious leaders to gain their support and use their influence in ending child marriage.
- Provide support for married girls, including access to education, legal help, psychosocial care, and health services.
- Centre the voices of those affected to shape decisions, policies, and programmes that address child marriage.
- Empower children and young people, and promote gender equality. Give women and girls the information and tools to know and exercise their rights.
- Partner with governments and international organisations to advocate for legal and policy reforms.
- Help girls and young women who are married to stay in school or return to school and complete their education.
- Work with the media to shift public perceptions and attitudes and raise awareness about the harms of child marriage.
Ending child marriage is complex. But with informed, inclusive, and sustained action, change is possible.
Global efforts and commitments
The Sustainable Development Goal 5.3 aims to end child marriage globally by 2030. Whilst child marriage has been declining overall, it is currently not on track to meet this goal.
Child marriage is addressed in several international conventions and agreements. The Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination against Women (CEDAW) protects against child marriage in Article 16, stating: “The betrothal and the marriage of a child shall have no legal effect,” and calls for legislation to set a minimum age for marriage.
The Universal Declaration of Human Rights affirms the right to “free and full” consent to marriage, however this is not possible if one or both parties lacks the maturity to make an informed decision.
The Convention on the Rights of the Child does not directly mention marriage, but it does address related rights such as freedom of expression, protection from abuse, and protection from harmful traditional practices. The Committee on the Rights of the Child frequently raises concerns about child marriage in its reviews.
Other relevant international agreements include the Convention on Consent to Marriage, Minimum Age for Marriage and Registration of Marriages, the African Charter on the Rights and Welfare of the Child, and the Protocol to the African Charter on Human and Peoples’ Rights on the Rights of Women in Africa.
Strengthening legal protections and enforcement
Whilst strengthening legal protections and enforcing them will help, on its own it will not end child marriage. We know this because it still happens in countries where child marriage is illegal.
As child marriage varies between cultures, locations, circumstances and communities there isn’t a simple or single solution to stop it happening. However, by working with governments to change laws and policies, strengthen existing ones and ensuring that these are enforced, it can help reduce the occurrence of child marriage.
Supporting survivors and at-risk girls
Supporting survivors of child marriage and girls at risk requires a comprehensive, community-based approach. These are just a few ways to offer support:
- Access to education - survivors should be supported to go back to school to continue their education or to offer them other learning opportunities. Girls at risk of child marriage should be supported to stay in school by providing scholarships, safe transport, and mentoring.
- Access to sexual and reproductive health services – survivors should be supported to access sexual and reproductive health services, including access to contraception and safe abortion services.
- Mental health support - counselling and trauma-informed therapy should be available for free to survivors of child marriage to help them process their emotions and to heal. At-risk girls can be supported with safe spaces where they can share experiences and build support networks with their peers.
- Economic empowerment - offering vocational training, life skills, and financial literacy programmes to help girls gain independence. Supporting families living in poverty with financial help to reduce the pressure to marry off daughters early.
How you can support those affected by child marriage
At Plan International UK we work with communities where child marriage happens to help make it stop. Girls learn about their rights through our work and how to make their voices heard. And families learn about the risks of child marriage, and girls’ value beyond being just a bride.
You can support those affected by child marriage by donating to Fierce Voices, a global community of people with shared values who want to make the world a fair, safe and equal place for girls. When you sign up, your regular donations can support projects that empower girls and tear down barriers so they can reach their potential.
FAQs about child marriage
Here are four frequently asked questions about child marriage.
How old are the children involved in child marriages?
Typically, children involved in child marriages are under 18, however there is a large proportion who are married before the age of 15. According to the United Nations Population Fund, the most common ages at which children are married are 16 and 17.
What is the usual age difference between a child bride and her husband?
In most cases of child marriage, the husband is usually older than his bride. But the age difference varies around the world. A study by advocacy group Unchained At Last, found that in the U.S. girls under 18 are married to men who are on average about 4 years older than them. In Sub-Saharan Africa the age gap is around 8 years.
Are boys ever married off as children?
Whilst it’s not as common for a boy to be married off as a child than a girl, it does happen. According to data by UNICEF UK, in 2019 there were an estimated 115 million boys and (now) men around the world who were married as children. Of those, 23 million (or 1 in 5) were married before the age of 15.
Is it insensitive to challenge cultural traditions around child marriage?
Child marriage violates human rights, especially the rights of girls to health, education, and independence. It causes lifelong harm, including cycles of poverty, gender inequality, and mental and physical health risks. Challenging cultural traditions around child marriage is vital, however it must be done sensitively and with respect.
Here are some of the ways to respectfully challenge cultural traditions around child marriage:
- Work with traditional and religious leaders to enlist their support and leadership to end child marriage.
- Work with communities to challenge social norms and attitudes towards child marriage and shift harmful practices.
- Educate men and boys about the rights of women and girls and equality for all.
References
[1] Child marriage and conflict & crisis - Girls Not Brides and Stop the War on Children 2020: Gender matters | Save the Children’s Resource Centre
[2] BBC